Across Africa, debt restructuring continues to dominate the policy agenda. Swings of more than $11 billion in the debt service positions of Ethiopia and Ghana underscore why: With restructuring negotiations often lasting years, countries remain vulnerable to external shocks and their resilience depends significantly on the currencies with which they operate. Ghana’s cedi appreciated about 40 percent against the US dollar in 2025 thanks to the government’s recent efforts to build up the country’s gold reserves.